How does the Internet Works?
The internet is a worldwide
collection of computer networks, cooperating with other to exchange data using
a common software standard. Through telephone wires and satellite links,
internet users can share information in a variety of forms. The size, scope and
design of the internet allow users to:
- Connect easily through ordinary personal computers and local phone numbers;
- Exchange electronic mail (E-mail) with friends and colleagues with accounts on the internet;
- Post information for others to access, and update it frequently;
- Access multimedia information that includes sound, photographic images and even video; and
- Access diverse perspectives from around the world.
An additional attribute of the
internet is the\at it lacks a central authority – in other words, there is no
“internet, Inc.” that controls the internet. Beyond the various governing
boards that works to establish policies and standards, the internet is bound by
few rules and answers to no single organization.
The History of the Internet
Many people think that the internet
is a recent innovation, when in fact the essence of it has been around for over
a quarter century. The internet began as ARPAnet, a U.S. Department of Defense
project to create a nationwide computer network that would continue to function
even if a large portion of it were destroyed in a nuclear war or natural
disaster.
During the next two decades, the
network that evolved was used primarily by academic institutions, scientists
and the government for research and communications. The Appeal of the internet
to these bodies was obvious, as it allowed desperate institutions to connect to
each others’ computing systems and databases, as well as share data via E-mail.
The nature of the internet changed
abruptly in 1992, when the U.S government began pulling out of network
management, and commercial entities offered internet access to the general
public for the first time. This change in focus marked the beginning of the
internet’s astonishing expansion.
According to a survey conducted by
CommerceNet and Nielsen Media Research in early 1997, nearly one out of every
four Americans over the age of 16 is an internet user. And the number of users
worldwide is believed to be well into the tens of millions. Other statistics
are equally starting:
·
A CNN report stated that internet traffic in 1996 was 25
times what it was just two years earlier.
·
The market research group intelliQuest pegged the number of
internet users in the U.S in late 1996 at 47 million – a 34 percent increase over
the first quarter of that year.
·
According to IBM, 146 countries currently have at least some
level of internet access.
·
The technology research firm IDG estimates that by century’s
end, one billion people worldwide will have access to personal computers – more
than doubling the computer-savvy population of 1996.
The Internet explosion coincides
with the advent of increasingly powerful yet reasonably priced personal
computers with easy-to-use graphical operating systems. The result has been an
attraction of recent computer “converts” to the network, and new possibilities
for exploiting a wealth of multimedia capabilities.
What kind of Information are Available?
In addition to text documents, the
internet makes available graphics files (digitized photographs and artwork),
and even files that contain digitized sound and video. Through the internet,
you can download software, participate in interactive forums where users post
and respond to public messages, and even join “chats,” in which you and other
users type (and, in some cases, speak) messages that are received by the chat
participants instantly.
How do people use the Internet?
Obviously,
the internet can bring you a whole host of capabilities. But how can they be
put to practical use?
Among
the ways that users like yourself are taking advantage of the internet are:
·
Sharing research and business data among colleagues and
like-minded individuals.
·
Communicating with others and transmitting files via E-mail.
·
Requesting and providing assistance with problems and
questions.
·
Marketing and publicizing products and services.
·
Gathering valuable feedback and suggestions from customers
and business partners.
The internet’s potentials are
limited only by users’ vision and creativity. And as the internet grows, new
and innovative uses will surely follow.
The Sum of Many Parts
Unlike many computer networks, the
internet consists of not one but multiple data systems that were developed
independently. The most popular and important systems are:
·
E-mail, for exchange of electronic mail messages
·
USENET newsgroups, for posting and responding to public
“bulletin board” messages.
·
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), a system for storing and
retrieving data files on large computer systems.
·
Gopher, a method of searching for various text-based
internet resources (largely obsolete).
·
TELNET, a way of connecting directly to computer systems on
the internet.
·
Internet Relay Chat (IRC), a system for sending public and
private messages to other users in “real time”- that is, your message appears
on the recipient’s screen as soon as you type it.
·
CU-SeeMe, a videoconferencing system that allows users to
send and receive sound and pictures simultaneously over the internet.
·
The World Wide Web.
What is the World Wide Web?
In this section…
·
The History of the Web
·
What Else Makes the Web unique?
·
What Does the Empower me to do ?
·
A Quick Tour of a Typical Web Site
Of
all the worthwhile features of the internet, none has captured the public
imagination and contributed to the Net’s growth as the World Web. A method of
posting and accessing interactive multimedia information, the ‘Web is a true
‘information superhighway.’ allowing users the world over to access a wealth of
information quickly.
The History of the Web
The
first rumblings toward this concept began immediately after World War II, when
scientists were desperately seeking ways to organize and share their
accumulated wartime research. In 1945, noted scientist Vannevar Bush published
an essay in Atlantic Monthly titled ‘As We May Think,’ which
proposed a massive information index that people form all over the world could
access and search. Although Bush’s system was mechanical [and was never
developed ], his essay had a profound impact an many who would one day help
design the Internet and the World Wide Web. For this reason, Vannever Bush is
often hailed as the theoretical father of the Web.
Given
this background, the actual Web was originally conceived as a way for
physicists to share their research data. In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee led a team at
Switzerland’s European particle Physics Laboratory [CERN] in developing the
initial World Wide Web standards. Key among these was the use of hypertext, or
‘hot’ portions of an online document that, when selected, take the user to a
related, or ‘linked, ‘document. For instance, if a user was reading a Web
document about dinosaurs and selected the hypertext word ‘Tyrannosaurus,” he or
she would go directly to a document dealing specifically with that species of
dinosaur.
Computerized
hypertext was pioneered by researcher Ted Nelson in a system called Xanadu,
which he created in the early 1960s. Although Xanadu was never fully realized,
many of the Web’s developers-including Berners-Lee-have cited as an influence
on their work.
The
next great innovation for the Web came in 1992, when programmers from the
National Center for Supercomputing Applications [NCSA] at the University of
Illinois developed the Mosaic browser, a software application that displayed
not only the text of a Web document (or page) , but embedded graphic
elements as well. By bringing multimedia to the Web, Mosaic vested it with
enormous potential.
Today,
several Web browsers are available for IBM, Macintosh and UNIX-based computers,
and most of the major online services include Web browsers in their standard
software packages. And the Web is growing at a phenomenal rate. According to Interactive
Week magazine, the number of Web servers (computers that store Web pages)
surged from fewer than 3,500 in April 1994, to more than 40,000 in July 1995.
And in February 1997, the computing firm Network Wizards determined the number
of commercial domains alone to be well over 700,000.
What Else Makes the Web Unique?
We
have already cited hypertext and multimedia as two of the outstanding features
of the World Wide Web. Among the Web’s other distinct advantages are:
·
Open standards that allow Web to be viewed through most any
computer with an Internet connection and a Web browser.
·
The ability to make software and data files available for
downloading.
·
Ease of use; just point and click on your browser to access
the information you need.
For the individual or organization
wishing to distribute information ,’the Web makes ‘publishing easy and cost
–effective. Putting information on the Web is quite inexpensive compared with
traditional publishing, yet puts that information before a potential audience
of millions. And unlike a printed publication, a Web can be revised updated at
any time.
What Does
the Web Empower me to do?
The World Wide Web brings you all of the
advantages of the Internet-and more! Among
the things that the Web allows you to do are:
·
Publish and make
frequent updates to on-line documents, and receive direct feedback on those
documents via E-mail
·
Connect with a diverse, global audience-a community defined
not by geography, but by interests.
·
Keep abreast of the latest news and developments in your
profession…. Often before such news appears in
conventional media.
·
Reference other Web resources easily via
hypertext.
·
Access otherwise obscure information not readily available
in other media.
·
Download useful software at little or no cost.
A Quick Tour of a Typical Web Site
A Web site may consist of a single Web page,
or may comprise multiple, Interconnected pages. The following is a view of how
the CenterSpan home page appears through a popular browser:
- Browser tools help you navigate around the Web. These vary among browsers, but most include tools for moving back and forth between pages, saving data to your hard disk, and controlling how Web pages will appear on your screen.
- A “Bookmark” list, “favorites” list or “hotlist” lets you save the names and locations of favorites site for easy reference (usually accessible through pull-down menus).
- The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is the address of a web site. URLs for web pages begin with the code http:// (“http” stands for the hypertext transfer protocol).
- Some web pages contain special graphic buttons that, when clicked, take you to another resource as would a regular hotlink.
- Hypertext hotlinks are connections to other pages and resources. To access, just click on them with your mouse or trackball. Most pages contain hotlinks throughout the text, as well as lists of links to other sites judged by the author/sponsor to be of particular interest. Some sites contain hotlinks to place where you can download software, listen to a sound file, or view a video clip.
- CenterSpan uses several applets, or small program segments run by Java, ActiveX or some other protocol. Applets are downloaded when you access a web site, and run only as long as you remain at that location.
- To make it easy to contact the author or sponsor of a web site, most contain one or more E-mail links. Clicking on such a link brings up a form where you can type an E-mail message to pre-set address.
How to connect to the Internet and World Wide Web
In this section
·
The Right Hardware
·
The Right Software
·
The Browser
·
Extras
·
Connection Options
·
Locating Internet Access Providers
·
Want to Look for an Access Provider
Before
you can connect to the internet and access the World Wide Web, you need to have
certain equipment. In brief, you must have a computer (preferably running an
up-to-date operating system); a modem and access to a telephone line or a local
area network (LAN) that is in turn connected to the internet; and connection
software that will allow you establish an account with a service provider and
access the internet.
A
modem is not needed when accessing the internet through a LAN.
The Right Hardware
To operate most of the current web
browsers and on-line services, you should have an IBM PC/PC equivalent, UNIX
workstation, or Apple Macintosh computer with at least 8 megabytes (MB) of
random access memory (RAM) and 10MB of free disk space. If you are unsure of
how much RAM and disk space your computer has, consult your user’s manual.
NOTE: Although the capacities of
both are measured in megabytes, RAM and disk space are NOT the same thing! RAM
refers to the electronic microchips in your computer that store data for
relatively brief periods, and that give your computer that active capacity to
run programs and access data. Disk space refers to space on the magnetic hard disk
inside (or connected to) your computer that stores data over the long term.
For
best results, use a PC with 486 or Pentium microprocessor; or a Macintosh with
a 030, 040 or PowerPC microprocessor.
It
is possible to connect to the internet using a computer other than an IBM PC,
Macintosh or UNIX workstation, though the access software available for such
machine is limited.
If
you are accessing the internet outside of a LAN environment, you will need a
modem that will connect you with other computers and interpret the data being
sent back and forth. Mostly any modem that is compatible with your computer
will do, though the higher the kilobit per second (kbps) rate of your modem,
the faster it will transmit data. Modem speed is an important consideration
when accessing sites on the web that contain lots of digitized data. In
general, your modem should transmit data at 14.4 kbps or faster to give your
optimum performance on the web. If you are looking to purchase a modem, buy the
faster model you can afford.
You
must also have access to live telephone line. Most modems accepts the same
jacks as do ordinary household phones, allowing you to connect your modem to a
wall jack using standard phone cord. Some cable TV providers have begun
offering internet connections via cable. Such connections provide much faster
transmission speeds than standard phone lines, though you will need a special
modem that allows you to link your computer with the cable. If you are
interested in a cable internet connection, contact your local cable operator to
see if the service is available in your area.
The Right Software
For
best results, make sure that your computer is running the most up-to-date
operating system that it can handle. If you have an IBM PC/PC compatible computer,
it should be running Microsoft Windows version 3.1, Windows NT, Windows 95 or
OS/2. if you have a Macintosh, it should be running system 7 or higher.
To
make your connection complete, you will need connection software that allows
your computer to dial into an internet access provider, establish an account,
and work with the data in a straightforward manner. Many access providers will
give you software that will allow you to access their systems using an
all-in-one custom interface. Others may give you a collection of separate
software packages that can be used together. But whatever software they
provide, be sure that it is compatible with your computer and operating system
before attempting to use it.
Some
internet access providers may allow you to establish a Serial Line Interface
Protocol (SLIP) or Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) connection, either of which
essentially makes your computer a part of the internet. Unlike many standard
dial-up software packages, a SLIP/PPP connection allows you to run independent
software packages such as web browsers, either one at a time or simultaneously.
The Browser
As
you surf the web, you will come across sites, this site is best viewed with…”
and then name a particular browser. Many will ever provide a link to a site
where you can download the specified browser.
Sites
make these recommendations because some browsers use special protocols,
allowing site creators to offer extra features beyond the standard capabilities
of hypertext markup language (HTML). Chief among these browser are Netscape
navigator and Microsoft internet explorer.
Your
internet service provider will most likely give you a choice of browser (if you
have a SLIP/PPP account, you may use any browser you wish), so try out a
couple, and use the browser that best suits your needs.
Extras
The
Netscape navigator and Microsoft internet browser allow for the use of
plug-ins, or extra software applications that run as they were an integral part
of browser. To see which plug-ins are currently available for Netscape, go to
Explorer,
go to: http//www.microsoft.com/le/download/
Browser
also use helper application that, while not as integral plug-ins, enhance the
browser capabilities by launching when needed, helper applications allow your
browser to play sound and video fills, display animation and other graphic
formats, or access special internet features such as TELNET. Most wed sites
that require the use of helper applications will provide links to sites where
you can download the necessary software.
For
more information on plug-ins and helper applications, go to “Useful Links”
section
Connection Options
Until
recently, the two primary methods of accessing the internet were through a
network connection, allowing user of local area network (LANs) to go online
through their school or workplace systems, and dial-up connections through a
modem and phone line. However, new connection options allow for greater speeds
and flexibility, keeping cost to a minimum.
The
following are some of the newer connection options that you might want to
investigate:
·
Cable Internet-these systems allow your computer to connect
to the internet through the same cable that carries your TV signal. Monthly
service charges are usually not much more than standard modem connection costs,
but you have to rent or purchase a “cable modem” Additionally, your computer
will need an Ethernet card (a special circuit board that allow for network
connection). Not all cable service operation offers this service; call your
local operator for more information.
·
Satellite connections- DirectPC (http://www.direcpc.com) allows you to
download internet files via a satellite connection. This is an efficient method
for receiving large wed graphics and other items, but you still need a modem
connection for other features. You mist purchase the connection hardware as
well as subscribe to the service.
·
Integrated services digital network (ISDN)-An ISDN line is a
type of digital phone line that can transmit data many time faster than a
conventional modem and phone line. To learn more about ISDN, go to http://www.isdn.ocn.com/index.shtml
·
Wireless connections- pagers, cellular phone and personal
digital assistants (PDAs) now allow varying levers of internet access, from
notification of E-mail to limited Web connections. Many of these services
remain in the experimental stage.
·
WebTV – Introduced in the late 1996, WebTV (http://www.webtv.net/) provides Web and
E-mail access through ordinary television sets. The connection is made through
a custom high-speed modem. You must purchase a special set-top unit for your
TV, plus subscribe to the connection service. Recently, similar systems by
other manufacturers have appeared on the market to compete with WebTV.
Locating Internet Access Providers
If
you already have Internet access but wish to learn about other access
providers, go to TAG Online (http://www.tagsys.com?Provider/provider_search.html)
or Mecklermedia’s “The List” (http://www.thelist.com/),
where you will be able to search databases of U.S. and International access
providers by name, geographical location and area code.
If
you do not already have Internet access, you can learn about internet services
that are available in your area by contacting your local library or telephone
company for recommendations, or by consulting a local computer publication or
computer store.
What to Look for in an access Provider
Access
providers vary widely in the services and capabilities they offer. The
providers listed at the beginning of this chapter offer local access throughout
most of the United States; however, you might find that a smaller, local
provider is more suited to your needs.
Before
committing to a service of any kind, be aware of the following variables:
·
Free plan
– Providers may offer a flat monthly fee for unlimited access, a metered hourly
fee, or both. The fee that will be most reasonable for you depends on how much
time you plan to spend online. If you are online for more than five hours per
month, a flat monthly fee will be the most economical choice. Otherwise, you’ll
be paying for service you don’t need.
·
Start-up fees
– Some providers charge a fee for setting up new account that can range from a
few dollars to $100. Providers may also charge “hidden” fees and premium rates
for access at certain times. Ask for a breakdown of all fees charged before you
sign on.
·
Local access numbers
– Unless you can dial in from your local area, you’ll be paying long distance
charges for each internet session. Make sure a provider offers access numbers
for your area, as well as for any area to which you routinely travel.
·
Contracts
– You may be offered a yearly or multi-year contract for service in exchange
for a discount rate. However, if you cancel your account before the contract is
up, the provider might charge you a penalty. Also, make sure that the service
provider is stable and reliable before committing to a long-term agreement,
particularly if you are required to pay up front.
·
Dependable access
– The ability to establish a connection during peak hours has become an
important issue as more people go online. A good service provider, obviously,
should have few busy signals and minimal downtime.
·
Good customer support
– If you call with a question concerning your account at an odd hour, will your
call be take? Will your E-mail queries be answered? The major providers usually
have excellent customer support, but smaller outfits may offer little or no
support services. Also be alert to premiums charged for support calls.
·
Proprietary services
– America Online, Prodigy and CompuServe all have their own database,
conference centers and chat rooms not available on the internet or any other
service. Other service providers offer nothing more than a straight connection
to the internet.
· Restricted
access- Providers can often determine what
Internet services they will provide, for example, some will carry only selected
newsgroups, providers that lack such restrictions often advertise their
“uncensored” and “unrestricted” access.
Surfing the Web for the First Time
In this
section….
· Getting online
· Finding Your Way Around
· Using a Web Index
· How Do Web Indexes Know What They Know?
· Where Are the Web Indexes?
· Using Your Browse Tools to Navigate the Web
Getting Online
Once
you have established your Internet account, you are now ready to “surf” the
World Wide Web from your computer. To do so, perform the following steps
(specific instructions will vary depending on your access provider and
software):
1.
Start up your computer, and make sure that
your modem is on and connected to a telephone line.
2.
Open your access software
3.
Initiate the connection. Many access
software packages will display the status of the connection process, which
generally takes between 15 and 30 seconds.
4.
Once you have successfully connected
access and launch your Web browser.
If
you have successfully accessed the Web, you will see in your browser window the
home page, or the first page that your browser is to access. Often the home
page is a site belonging to the manufacturer of the Web browser you’re using.
On most browsers, you can change the home page to a site that you’d like to
access each time you begin a Web session.
Depending
on the speed of your modem and the size or complexity of the page you’re
accessing, the time necessary to completely load a page can range from a few
seconds to several minutes.
Finding Your Way Around
Now
that you’ve gotten on the Web, you’re probably wondering how to get to all
those great resources that you’ve been bearing about. Fortunately, there are
several strategies for moving about the Web.
· Type the URL address of a site into the entry field of your
browser.
This is the most basic method of
accessing a Web site. However, you have to know exactly where you want to go,
and then type in the address precisely in order to get there. The newer
browsers can compensate for some typing (for instance, allowing you to omit the
http:// at the beginning of a
URL), but some URLs are too complicated for a browser to second-guess.
If you simply want to explore and
get to know the Web, any one of the following strategies are preferable:
·
Click on hyperlinks to move among
resources; your home page probably has some links to interesting sites.
·
Access a jump site, which is a page
consisting mainly of categorized hotlinks to other sites. Again, your home page
may function may function as a jump site.
·
Access a Web index, which lets you
access sites by typing in keywords.
Jump
sites contain collections of special-interest sites that the author has
included for certain reasons. Web indexes, however, usually contain much more
eclectic assemblies of Web resources. If you’re on the Web and are not sure
where to go, head to the nearest Web index.
Using a Web Index
To access and use a Web index, perform the following steps:
2. Press ENTER or RETURN on your keyboard.
This will take you to Yahoo!, one of the most popular
Web indexes. Underneath the Yahoo! Logo, you will see a blank search entry
form, as well as hotlinks of site categories.
3. Click on one of the category topics and follow the
categories until you reach a site that matches your interest.
…OR…
4. Click your mouse in
the entry form. This will place a blinking cursor in the form.
5. Type one or more words pertaining to information you’d like
to locate on the Web.
6. Click on the SEARCH button to the right of the entry form,
or press RETURN or ENTER on your keypad.
After a few seconds, Yahoo! will return
with a list of hotlinks that match your search criteria. The more specific your
criteria, the fewer and more specific hotlinks you will see.
7. Scroll down the page and select the hotlink to a page that
you’d like to explore (NOTE: Extensive search results will take up multiple
pages).
If you would like to try searching with a web index other
than Yahoo!, select one of the index hotlinks listed at the bottom of each page
of search results. When you select any one of these indexes, the keywords you
entered for Yahoo! will remain in force, though the search results will be
different simply because of the way that each Web index processes information.
How Do Web Indexes Know What They
Know?
It
would seem that cataloguing everything on the Web would be a monumental and
maddening task. Web indexes meet this challenge using two primary strategies.
One
way of building an index is to let the site creators register their sites with
the index, in order to generate publicity for their sites. The other is to use
special software that automatically scans the Web for new sites and catalogues
them; such software is often referred to as “crawler”, “spider”, or “bot”
(Short for “robot”) software. Many indexes use a combination of the two
methods, and some indexes catalog other portions of the Net in addition to the
Web (an index called DejaNews, for example, catalogs messages in USENET
newsgroups).
Where Are the Web Indexes?
In
your searches, you will probably want to use various Web indexes, as they vary
in both their content and the way in which they process search queries.
The
following are the addresses for a few of the more popular Web indexes:
Using Your Browser Tools to Navigate
the Web
Yet
another method of navigating the Web involves your browser’s own controls. Most
browsers “memorize” or cache the pages that you’ve accessed during a Web
session, and have BACK and FORWARD buttons that let you go back and forth among
these pages. Browsers may also have a GO menu that lets you hop hack and forth
between memorized pages out of sequence.
Using Other Internet Features
In this section….
·
E-mail
·
USENET Newsgroups
·
Electronic Mailing Lists
·
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
·
Virtual Reality
In
an astonishingly short time frame, the World Wide Web has become the
outstanding component of the Internet. However, you will also find useful other
aspects of the Net-namely Email and USENET newsgroups.
E-mail
E-mail
is the method through which you can send messages to other Net users. Your
online service should provide you with E-mail capabilities; if you have
questions concerning the operation of your E-mail system, contact your
service’s customer support, or consult your user’s guide or other
documentation.
How to Address Other Internet Users
If
you use an online service such as America online, you may be accustomed to
addressing E-mail to fellow member John Doe simply by using his AOL user name,
“JDoe”. But if you were on another service provider and wanted to send E-mail
to John Doe, you would have to address the message properly in order for it to
transverse the Internet.
Internet
addresses always follow this format:
“Username”
is, of course, the user name of the person holding the account. “Domain” refers
to the name of the computer that holds the user’s account (usually a close
match to the service name).
“Top-domain”
refers to the top-level domain, indicating the nature of the computer system
containing the account. The following are the common top-level domain names in
the United States:
· Com - Business and commercial interests
· Edu - Universities and other educational institutions
· Gov - State and federal government
· Mil - Military systems
· Net - Special Internet systems
· Org - Nonprofit and other organizations
Following
this protocol, John Doe’s Internet address on America Online would be jdoe@aol.com,
where “jdoe” is the user name, “aol” is the domain name, and “com” is the
top-domain name.
Internet
top domains outside the U.S. contain an extra two-letter extension indicating
the country of origin. If John Doe had an account on the Websys service
provider in Toronto, Ontario, for instance, his address would be jdoe@websys.ca,
is the two-letter designation for Canada. More information on international
top-level domain designations appear in the section “The Net Around the
World”.
E-mail Etiquette
Because of the high potential for misunderstanding the
intent of an E-mail message, you should be aware of the following points of
“netiquette” when communicating via E-mail;
· Follow the conventions for standard business writing. The
immediacy of E-mail makes it tempting to treat it as highly informal- leading
to uses of sarcasm and flippancy that can be misinterpreted as sheer mean
–spiritedness. Take care in composing your responses, in terms of both
mechanics and tone. And when engaging in business correspondence, avoid the
following “netisms” :
o “smiles,”
or punctuation that, when viewed sideways, resembles a facial expression
(i.e,:-) is a smile.
o Acronyms
such as <G> (grin), <IMHO> (in my honest/humble opinion), and
<ROTFL> (rolling on the floor laughing).
o Pseudo
HTML (<wink mode= “conspiratorial”></wink>)
· Don’t
assume that your E-mail messages are private. Because E-mail travels a complex path through the Net before
reaching its destination, the chance of messages being intercepted and read by
unintended persons does exist. Also, your addressee may assign another
individual to read his or her incoming E-mail. If you want to transmit
confidential information over the Net, first encode it using encryption
software (some of which can be downloaded from the Net at little or no cost to
you; see the “Links section of the tutorial), and send the password to the
addressee under separate cover, preferably in a medium other than E-mail.
· Don’t
assume that your E-mail messages will be read and acted on immediately. There may be a significant tag between the time you send an
E-mail message and a) the time it arrives at the recipient’s service provider,
and b) the time the recipient reads it. Slow and busy gateways can impede the
transmission of E-mail messages, often by several hours; messages sometime even
get lost en route. And once a message arrives, it might become part of the
recipient’s large backlog of unread messages. And occasionally, the recipient
might have trouble logging on to the access provider.
Be patient when expecting a response
to an E-mail message, though send a follow-up if you don’t hear any word within
a reasonable time. And if you need to send time-critical information, you may
be better served using another medium, such as the phone or express mail.
· Do not
send unsolicited E-mail, particularly commercial mass mailings. Known as “spamming” (named after a redundant chant used in a
Monty Python Skit), mass E-mailing is considered a grave faux pas in the
Internet world. There is no law against spamming (a situation that may soon
change), but enough users might complain to your service provider about the
spamming that the provider may feel obligated to suspend or even cancel your
account. By the same token, if you receive unsolicited E-mail that is offensive
or harassing, report it to your service provider.
· When
writing, do not type in ALL CAPS. Type
that appears, in all capital letters is considered shouting by internet
standards, and is therefore viewed as vulgar. If you want to emphasize a word
or phrase and not able to use italics or underlining, highlight it in
*asterisks*
USENET Newsgroups
USENET
newsgroups constitute the Internet’s system of “bulletin board” posting and
response. Unlike E-mail, in which messages are intended to be read only by the
recipient, USENET newsgroup messages can be read by anyone participating in the
newsgroup. Most newsgroups function as discussion groups, whereby people post
and respond to public messages, though some contain “binaries”, or specially
encoded files containing downloadable graphic images or application software.
Newsgroups
are categorized by topic, and most are accessible to anyone who has an account
with a participating Internet service provider, as well as the proper software
(some Web browsers such as Netscape double as newsgroup “readers,” and most of
the commercial online services allow for newsgroup access as well). The names
of individual newsgroups appear as a series of words or word fragments
separated by periods; reading from left to right, the words indicate a
hierarchy from the broad to the specific. A newsgroup name of
“comp.systems.mac.d” for instance, translates into “a discussion group
concerning Macintosh computer systems”.
Although
the vast majority of newsgroups allow users to post unrestricted, many are
“moderated”, meaning that a person or group monitors posting and either blocks
or deletes posting it deems inappropriate or irrelevant to the newsgroup’s
stated topic. Moderated newsgroups typically prohibit any type of
advertisements, though exceptions may be made for items of special interest to
the group. Some groups even automatically reject posts that are “cross-posted”,
or addressed to more than one group, assuming them to be spam. In general,
moderated newsgroups are considered to be of higher quality than unmoderated
groups, because the discussions are kept focused, and participants don’t have
to sift through dozens of irrelevant posts. Moderators, though, are sometimes
accused of being heavy-handed in their decisions, and their decisions are often
fuel for controversy within groups.
Currently,
there are about 20,000 active newsgroups on the Net, with new ones being added
nearly every day. Most of the major access providers offer newsgroup access.
However, your service provider might not carry all available newsgroups, as some
opt not to carry newsgroups containing pornographic or potentially illegal
material, or topics of extremely narrow interest.
Newsgroup Etiquette
As with E-mail, newsgroups follow their own set of unwritten
rules for posting and responding to messages. The following are a few of the
general point:
· Think carefully before you post. Remember that anything you
post to a newsgroup might be read by thousands of users from all over the
world. Additionally, newsgroup postings can be archived for years, making it
tough to take back something you posted in the heat of anger or passion.
· Don’t post unless you have something important to contribute
to a discussion. Nothing irks newsgroup participants more than having to wade
through dozens of responses that say little more than “Me too,” or “I agree”.
· Get to know a newsgroup before posting. Many newsgroups have
their own rules of etiquette, and the only way to learn them is to spend time
reading the newsgroups messages. What is permissible in one newsgroup might be
strictly taboo in another. The posting of commercial advertisements is a point
of contention within the newsgroup community; most newsgroups either frown on
or prohibit outright the posting of ads, while other newsgroups consist almost
entirely of advertisements.
· Keep your messages appropriate to the newsgroup. Some
newsgroups have moderators who work to keep the newsgroups “on topic,” but most
do not, and rely on the participants to limit their discussion to the topic at
hand.
· Look for the FAQs. In other to avoid excessive repetition of
basic questions and answers, many newsgroups maintain FAQ (frequently asked
question) file. Typically, the FAQs are kept available at an FTP or web site;
they may also be posted on the newsgroups themselves periodically. If you have
a “beginner’s question”, you’ll get your best answer from the FAQ.
· Avoid getting caught up in a “flame war”, or an exchange of
insults between users. The lack of accountability on the Internet encourages an
unfortunate amount of irresponsible and ignorant behavior….but you don’t have
to be a part of it. Flaming is a waste of everyone’s time. Instead, on treating
fellow users and their ideas with respect, just as you would like to be
treated.
The penalties for violating newsgroup etiquette are similar
to those for the more serious E-mail transgressions. If enough people complain
about your conduct to service provider, your account could be suspended or even
canceled.
Electronic Mailing Lists
Commonly
referred to as listservs, electronic mailing lists provide a method for groups
of Internet users with similar interests to correspond with one another and
post messages publicly, not unlike a newsgroup. The distinguishing
characteristic of listservs, however, is that they are totally accessible
through ordinary E-mail: therefore, a user with internet E-mail access but no
other capabilities can participate in a listserv.
You
can subscribe to a listserv by sending an E-mail message to the list’s
administrative address (usually separate from its submission address, which is
used to post messages). Precise subscription instructions vary, but in most
cases, sending a message with nothing in the body copy but subscribe list John
Doe (where “list” is the name of the listserv and “John Doe” is your name) will
suffice. Similarly, you can also remove your name from a mailing list (you
should receive instructions explaining how to do this once your name has been
added).
Once
your name has been included in listserv, you will receive messages posted to
the listserv in you regular E-mail. When you reply to a message, the reply will
be sent to the listserv E-mail address, and not to the address of the original
author (unless you specify otherwise, using your E-mail software). Likewise,
when posting a new message, make sure you send it to the correct listserv
E-mail address.
In
general, the rules of etiquette for general E-mail and newsgroups also apply to
listservs; stick to the topic of the
listserv, and avoid redundant posts such as “Me too” and “I agree” responses
(you’ll see soon enough how trivial posts can clutter up one’s electronic mail
box!). Many listservs are moderated, so that only important and informative
posts are forwarded to subscribers.
Directories
of electronic mailing lists on varying topics, complete with subscription
instructions, are available on the web at the following sites:
Medically-oriented
mailing list may be found in Medical Matrix (http://www.medmatrix.org/) under the various
specialty topics.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
Internet
Relay Chat was develop in Finland in 1988, and allows multiple internet users
(or “clients”) to enter a “channel,” or a virtual meeting place on an IRC
server computer, and type instantaneous messages to one another. Unlike USENET
newsgroups or E-mail, IRC chatting allows users to carry on real-time, two way
or group “conversations.”
The
major IRC servers carry chat channels (the names of which are prefaced by a “#”
symbol) on a wide variety of topics, but you can often create your own channels
if the channel, users can post messages that everyone connected to the channel
can read, or they can send private messages to specific nicknames.
To
protect their privacy (as well as to add an element of fun to the chat), users
can create and change nicknames for themselves. Nicknames should be unique to
prevent confusion among participants in a chat. Some chat channels and servers
require users to register their nicknames in a listserv, or a standing list of
nicknames; systems that require this will have information on how to register nicknames.
If
you have used the chat rooms on America Online or another online service, you
will see the similarities between those systems and the IRC immediately. IRC,
however, uses arcane commands that can be daunting even for experienced users;
therefore, a sophisticated IRC client program with a user-friendly interface
takes the difficulty out of IRC and lets you concentrate on your chats instead
of commands. See the “Links” section for Web address for downloading IRC
software.
Be
aware that the proprietary chat systems of online services were developed
independently of IRC and are not part of the IRC network. If you are a member
of one of these services and are not sure if or how you can participate in IRC
through your services, contact the service’s customer support.
To
learn more about IRC, and to get lists of IRC servers and downloadable IRC
clients, go to http://www.kel.com/irc.html
many regular IRC channels have their own Web pages, so you can search the Web
for chat topics that might interest you.
Virtual Reality
When
the World Wide Web made possible the convergence of text and graphics online,
the effect was revolutionary. Now, many programmers and developers are working
to take the web one step further with technologies that allow users to navigate
three-dimensional environments. An environment that so immerses a user in
cyberspace is called virtual reality, or a virtual world.
A
number of languages and protocols are being used to create virtual words, but
the most popular is Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML), which allows a
virtual environment to be accessed through a properly configures Web browser.
VRML plug-ins are available for Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet
Explorer
Virtual
reality can be used to help users navigate a complex Web site, or to interact
with other users using avatars, or 3D characters that the user can define and
manipulate. So far most virtual worlds have been limited to games, navigation
maps and 3D chat rooms, though the possibilities for virtual words continue to
expand with better browsers and virtual reality development tools.
Computer Viruses
A
virus is a program designed by a computer programmer (malicious hacker) to do a
certain unwanted function. The virus program can be simply annoying like
displaying a happy on the user’s screen at a certain time and date. It can also
be very destructive and damage your computer’s programs and files causing the
computer to stop working.
The
reason why hackers create viruses are open for speculation. The most quoted
reason is simply to see if it can be done. Other reasons are Ludite based
“smash the machine” motivations, antiestablishment/anti-corporate actions,
criminal intent, and various others that range into the “conspiracy theory”
realm.
Viruses take two basic forms
One is the boot sector viruses which
infect the section of a disk that is first read by the computer. This type of
virus infects the boot or master section of any disks that it comes in contact
with. The second is a program virus that infects other programs when the
infected program is run or executed. Some viruses infect both and others change
themselves (polymorphic) depending on the programs they encounter.
Though viruses do not damage
computer hardware there have been attempts to create programs that will do
things like run the hard drive until it fails or lodge itself in the computer’s
clock (which has a rechargeable battery) allowing it to remain active even
months after the computer has been unplugged. Other viruses affect certain
microchips (BIOS chip for instance). These microchips need to be modified under
normal computer use but the virus program can produce changes which will cause
them to fail. Other viruses will affect the characters or images displayed on
the screen which may give the impression of monitor failure.
Viruses can cause a great deal of
damage to the computers it infects and can cost a lot of time and money to
correct.
Computer viruses have been around
for a long time, even before computer became widely used and they will likely
remain with us forever. For that reason computer users will always need ways to
protect themselves from the viruses programs. The main, common feature of a
virus is that it is contagious! Their sole purpose is to spread and infect
other computers.
A computer gets a virus from an
infected file.
The virus might attach themselves to
a game, a program (both shareware and commercial) or a file downloaded from a
bulletin board or the internet.
You cannot give a virus from a plain
email message or from a simple text file! That is because the virus needs to be
‘run’ or executed before it can take effect. This usually happens when the user
tries to open an infected program, accesses an infected disk or opens a file
with an infected macro or script attached to it. A plain email message is made
up of text which does not execute or run when opened.
Modern email programs provide the
ability to allow users to format email messages with HTML and attach scripts to
them for various purposes and it is possible for a malicious hacker to attempt
to spread a virus by building a virus script into an HTML type of email
message.
When you are accepting software or
scripts on internet sites or reading mail from unknown senders it is best not
to run a program from the site or sender without checking it with an anti-virus
program first.
Protect yourself
You can take safeguards against
virus infection. The first thing is to get an anti-virus program. Most
reputable companies that create virus protections release an evaluation copy
that an internet user can download for free and use for a certain amount of time.
The anti-virus program will be able to check your computer for viruses and
repair damage or delete files that are infected with viruses. You may have to
replace infected files that cannot be repaired.
The second thing you can do is
purchase a copy of the program. The reason for this is that viruses are
constantly being created. When you purchase an anti-virus program you are also
purchasing periodical updates which keep your anti-virus program up-to-date and
able to deal with new viruses as they are encountered. Commercial virus
programs also allow the user to customize when and how the program will check
the computer for viruses. You will need to renew this updating service
periodically.
If you find that computer has been
infected with a virus use an anti-virus program to clean you computer and make
sure to check all disks that you use. This includes all the hard drives on your
computer(s) and all your floppy disks and CDs as well as any media that you
save information on. Remember that the virus can easily re-infect your computer
from one infected file!
If you have to reload your computer
programs, use the original program disks. You may want to check your original
disks before reinstalling the software. If your original disks are infected
contact the distributor to get replacements.
Always take the time to ensure that
your computer is properly protected. Spending money on a good virus checking
program could save you hundred of dollars and lots of time later.
A discussion of viruses would not be
completed without mentioning hoaxes. Malicious people without programming
skills will send out fake virus warning causing people to take unnecessary
measures which often cause you computer harm. One example tries to get the
unsuspecting computer user to delete an important system file by warning them
that it is a virus. A legitimate virus warning will provide a link to website
operated by anti-virus company with more information about that virus. Don’t
forward a virus warning until you have check out whether it is legitimate.
Internet Security
There is a lot of discussion these
day s about computer security as more people use email and more services such
as banking, mail orders and subscriptions become available through the
internet. But how secure is the internet and what is computer security?
Computers & Security
Before the internet, computer
security was limited to closed systems or network computers such as offices or
banks where only people physically in office could use the computer system. It was
quite easy for network supervisor to set up user names and passwords and since
that since that time people have become used to logging on before they can use
these types of computers or recourses.
With the advent of the internet,
computer users can now work in an ‘open system’ and security has become much
more complicated. Even though you can
now connect your home or office computer to the internet and perform
remote transactions without leaving the building you still want to be sure that
the transaction is secure. The transaction takes place through the internet by
bouncing the information through various computers before it reaches, for
example, the banks computer. You want to be sure that no one observes the
transaction along the way and collects or modifies you transaction information.
This is where computer security comes in.
There are many different types of security systems though most use a process
called encryption. When you connect to your bank or other service to make a
transaction you are often required to send your account number or user name as
well as a Personal Identification Number (PIN) or password for verification.
This information should only be sent after establishing a secure connection. If
you are using an internet browser you will see a small closed look appear in
the window of the browser. Once you are connected to a secure server any
information you send or receive is scrambled or encrypted using a mathematical
formula and then reassembled or decrypted at the other end. The computer user
usually will not notice this happening as they perform their secure
transaction. Anyone with criminal intent who intercepts your transaction will
be treated to a stream of garbled nonsense – (e.g.qANQR1DBwU4D560EJv6XqrMQB)!
If this is the first time you use a
new service you most often will need to setup an account and possibly download
a small piece of software called a plug in which allow your computer to create
the secure connection or link.
The transaction often involves the
exchange of a small file that keeps track of the transaction and can act a flag
or bookmark when you next visit that website. These small files are called
cookies and are set by the website you are visiting. They can contain
information such as the type of server you are connecting from, the type of
browser you are using, the last site you visited and any information you
volunteer. You can view the information stored in the cookie. Try a search for
‘cookie’ to find the cookies folder. Windows users can view any cookies they
are storing in the folder C:\Windows\cookies\.
Setting up security
As the most people won’t be setting
up their own secure server the scope of this section is limited to the topics
of protecting email and small business or organizations.
Email can be protected using a
service or an application (program). There are others but the two that stand
out currently are S/MIME and PGP. S/MIME requires the user to register with a 3
party service which issues a digital id that you attach to your message. Though
this is usually a commercial application for business use and is run from your
own computer.
Both methods allow users to sign or
attach a digital identification to the email message which verifies, to the
recipient, that the message is from the original person or organization and
that the information wasn’t tampered with in the transit. These methods also
allows the user to encrypt their messages so that anyone intercepting the
message wouldn’t be able read it. You can also decide the level of encryption
from low; in which a nerd with some good software and enough time on their
hands could possibly decrypt to high (128 bit) which would take a whole
mountain of experts’ weeks to decrypt if even then. Most of us will choose
somewhere in between as this process involves increased time and file size.
Both methods use key pairs of public
and private keys. Your public keys is sent to everyone that you communicate
through email with. Your public key can be sent through various methods
including posting it on an internet service or sending it as part of an email
message. Public keys can also be posted on your website in a file. Your friends
and associate can add your public key to a file called a key ring. When someone
wants to send you a secure email the sender encrypts their messages with your
public key. When you receive the email you must decrypt it using your private
key. Many email programs will automatically verify that the message is
authentic. You will need to type in your password to view the message.
Encryption also involves using the
key pair in reverse. Once your message is completed you encrypt the file using
the recipient’s public key ensuring that only the recipient can ever access
that message with their private key. (Editor’s note: Don’t lose your private
key!).
Small businesses and organizations
that wish to offer transactions over the internet or Ecommerce can take their
chances and set up an unsecured system, set up their own secure server or
purchase a service from a third party. There are various types including
service that take a percentage of the transaction and/or charge a service fee
and/or for each transaction. Some organizations are more reliable and you
should always shop around before committing to a service. Because this type of
service is so new the length of time a company has been operating is not always
a way to decide. Things to watch for is downtime. If your company’s website is
operating properly yet the customer or user can’t access the transaction server
because it is down, too busy or misconfigured they will easily be put off
perhaps entirely. Watch for contracts that lock you in as the market is still
developing and prices tend to fluctuate. It is easy to switch services by
simply changing the address on your website’s order forms.
Security and Websites
As was started at the beginning of
this document the nature of the internet is an open system. Having said that
there are many reasons and many ways to set up a secure or closed system with
in this open framework. Private or member based discussion groups, private
files or folders, protected databases, copyright material to name a few all nee
some way of allowing them to be distributed to the intended recipient only.
Also many business are creating intranets which are closed systems only
accessible to registered users. An intranet can provide a way of making a
company information easily accessible and allow branch offices to communicate
with each other easier.
Account Security
Your website itself is protected by
your ISP’s software. When you attempt to access you web space to change or
modify a file using a shell or ftp you are challenged to send your username and
password. This is the first line of protection and adequate for many website
administrators.
Server Security
The server that your website is
installed on is the second line of protection. Most servers have security
features built in to them allowing users to password protect folders or build
scripts to send a username/password challenged to a user trying to access a
file or folder. This allow website administrators the ability to create
discussion groups within their site or to place confidential documents of
information that is made available only to registered users on their own
website. Unfortunately some ISP either don’t make this option available, charge
a premium to use them or only allow their own employees to set them up.
Third Party Security
Another option includes contracting
the protection of private files to a separate service, pay a third party to
hosting a private discussion group or obtain web space on another server that
allows access to security options. The entire internet is as close as your
computer connection and whether the file the user is viewing is stored in your
own current web space or on another server is usually immaterial. When your
computers, employees or members moves from one page to another the consistency
of the website is the maintained by the design, not the address of the separate
pages. It is also possible to control the address that is displayed if
required.
Software
Security
Another option is to use JavaScript
or Java applets to control how customers or members access secure features.
This option is only available to users who are using Java enabled browsers.
Scripts and applets can control access to documents and databases, create
content on the fly based on user input, detect the browser the visitor is using
and direct them to the proper page, retrieve cookies and use that information
to determine whether a user has access to a certain area or not, as well as
many other users.
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